Digestion is a complex interplay of nerves, hormones and intestinal flora. If this balance is upset, persistent abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhea or constipation can occur. Many sufferers wander from doctor to doctor without being able to find an organic cause. In such cases, doctors refer to irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) - a functional disorder of the gut-brain axis in which various biological and psychosocial factors are involved [4]. In Germany, it is estimated that around one to two percent of the population suffer from the syndrome, women twice as often as men [4]. The symptoms have a considerable impact on quality of life, although the disease does not shorten life expectancy. This is why many sufferers look for nutritional concepts to alleviate their symptoms. One of the best-known strategies is the low-FODMAP diet. This article explains what FODMAPs are, how the diet works, what opportunities and risks it entails and how you can master the balancing act between a healthy diet and symptom relief.
Understanding irritable bowel syndrome
Irritable bowel syndrome is a condition that causes persistent or recurring symptoms such as abdominal pain, bloating and changes in bowel habits [4]. According to the definition, the symptoms must persist for more than three months, affect everyday life and not be explained by other illnesses. Experts consider IBS to be a disorder of the gut-brain axis: nerves, neurotransmitters and gut flora are in constant interaction, meaning that digestion and the psyche are closely linked [4]. Possible triggers include disturbed intestinal movements (motility), hypersensitive intestinal nerves, hormonal fluctuations, past infections, the use of antibiotics or chronic stress. The symptoms are real, even if they are not detectable in conventional examinations. A multimodal approach is often used therapeutically: in addition to an adapted diet, exercise, relaxation techniques, medication, psychotherapy and probiotics all play a role [4].
Example of experience: Sarah, 32, had suffered from abdominal cramps, bloating and irregular bowel movements since she was young. After many medical examinations, she was diagnosed with irritable bowel syndrome. Her doctor recommended that she keep a food diary. Sarah noticed that she experienced particularly severe symptoms after eating apple juice, wheat bread and onions. With the support of a nutritionist, she changed her diet to low FODMAP. Step by step, she learned which foods she tolerated well and which she did not. Today, she experiences significantly fewer symptoms and has learned to adapt her diet flexibly to her needs.
FODMAP - what is it?
FODMAP is an acronym and stands for fermentable oligo-, di- and monosaccharides as well as polyols. These are short-chain carbohydrates and sugar alcohols that are poorly absorbed in the small intestine [1][2][5]. FODMAPs include fructans and galactans (e.g. in wheat, onions, garlic and pulses), lactose (lactose in milk and cream cheese), fructose (fructose in many types of fruit and honey) and polyols such as sorbitol, xylitol or mannitol (especially in stone fruit and sugar substitutes) [1]. Once these substances enter the large intestine, they bind water and are fermented by intestinal bacteria. This produces gases that can cause flatulence, pain, diarrhea or constipation in sensitive people [2]. The term was coined at Monash University in Australia in 2010 after researchers Peter Gibson and Susan Shepherd recognized that a low FODMAP diet alleviates the symptoms of many irritable bowel syndrome patients [3].
FODMAPs are found in numerous foods. The following table provides an overview of the groups and typical examples:
| FODMAP group | Examples of common sources |
|---|---|
| Oligosaccharides (fructans, galactans) | Onions, garlic, wheat, rye, legumes, artichokes |
| Disaccharides (lactose) | Milk, cream, yogurt, cream cheese, pudding |
| Monosaccharides (fructose) | Apples, pears, honey, high fructose corn syrup, mango |
| Polyols (sugar alcohols) | Sorbitol, xylitol, mannitol; contained in plums, stone fruit, mushrooms and sugar-free chewing gum |
FODMAPs are not unhealthy per se. They act as dietary fiber and prebiotic substances that promote the growth of beneficial intestinal bacteria. However, they can exacerbate symptoms in people with irritable bowel syndrome if consumed in large quantities [1]. The aim of a low FODMAP diet is not to ban these nutrients permanently, but to find out what quantities are tolerated by each individual and which FODMAP source causes symptoms.
How did the FODMAP concept come about?
The FODMAP hypothesis was first formulated in 2005, but the concept began to gain prominence in 2010. At that time, Australian scientists Gibson and Shepherd published a study in which they investigated the effect of a low FODMAP diet on irritable bowel symptoms [3]. The results were promising and the concept spread worldwide. In Germany, the FODMAP diet was included in the S3 guideline on irritable bowel syndrome in 2021 [3]. Here it is recommended as a dietary option for predominant symptoms such as pain, bloating and diarrhea. The diet is also mentioned as an option for patients with predominant constipation. However, it is important to be supported by nutritionists, as the diet is complex and does not help everyone affected. According to studies, around three quarters of irritable bowel syndrome sufferers benefit from a low FODMAP diet, while a quarter experience no improvement [3].
- 2005: First formulation of the FODMAP hypothesis.
- 2010: Publication of the clinical study by Gibson & Shepherd on the low FODMAP diet; the term FODMAP is coined.
- 2021: Inclusion of the low-FODMAP diet in the German S3 guideline on irritable bowel syndrome.
- 2024/2025: Meta-analyses confirm its effectiveness; however, they emphasize that specialized nutritional advice is necessary and that the diet is not suitable for everyone [3].
The low FODMAP diet - process and phases
The low FODMAP diet is implemented in three phases. The aim is not to avoid FODMAP-containing foods forever, but to determine individually tolerated amounts and to enable a balanced diet in the long term. Experts advise following the diet under professional guidance and continuing the elimination phase for no longer than six to eight weeks [1][2].
- Elimination phase: In the first phase, FODMAP-rich foods are consistently avoided in order to achieve symptom relief [1][2]. This usually takes six to eight weeks. During this time, a symptom and food diary should be kept in order to identify correlations.
- Reintroduction phase: Once the symptoms have improved, individual FODMAP sources are reintroduced one after the other and in increasing quantities [1][2]. Only one food is tested per week to determine individual tolerance. The diary helps to document the reactions.
- Long-term diet: Based on the collected findings, a personalized diet plan is created that includes as many foods as possible while remaining symptom-free. The aim is a balanced and enjoyable diet in which only foods that clearly trigger symptoms are avoided [1][2].
The success of the diet depends heavily on good preparation. It is worth researching recipes or using a special FODMAP cookbook. Many dietitians also provide FODMAP lists and portion sizes as a guide. Soybeans, for example, are high in FODMAPs, while tofu as a finished product is usually low in FODMAPs. Preparation also plays a role: sourdough bread often contains fewer fructans because yeasts partially break down these carbohydrates [1].
Example of experience: Karsten, 45, had diarrhea, flatulence and abdominal pain for years. His diet consisted of wholemeal bread, onions, pulses and apple juice - foods that contain a lot of fructans, galactans and fructose. After being diagnosed with irritable bowel syndrome, he tried the low FODMAP diet. During the elimination phase, he gave up wheat, some types of fruit and pulses. After just two weeks, he felt less bloated and more relaxed. During the reintroduction phase, he discovered that he tolerates small amounts of lactose-free milk well, but is particularly sensitive to onions. Today, Karsten eats sourdough spelt bread, lactose-free dairy products, lots of vegetables and moderate portions of fruit. His symptoms have greatly reduced and he is no longer afraid of going to restaurants.
Low FODMAP diet in everyday life
The low FODMAP diet is not a rigid meal plan, but an individualized nutritional concept. Basically, FODMAP-rich foods should be reduced and replaced with low-FODMAP alternatives. Lists and tables that classify typical foods can help with this. The following table contains a list of low-FODMAP foods compared to high-FODMAP foods [1][2]. Long, complex sentences have been deliberately avoided to make it easier to keep track:
| Food group | FODMAP-rich | Low FODMAP |
|---|---|---|
| Vegetables | Asparagus, cauliflower, artichokes, onions, garlic, green peas, mushrooms | Cucumber, eggplant, pak choi, green peppers, potatoes, carrots, zucchinis |
| Fruits | Apples, pears, watermelon, mango, plums, nectarines, dried fruit, cherries | Kiwi, pineapple, oranges, mandarins, cantaloupe, honeydew melon, grapes, strawberries |
| Cereals & flour | Wheat, rye, barley, artificial baked goods, wholemeal wheat | Spelt sourdough bread, oat flakes, rice, quinoa, amaranth, buckwheat |
| Protein sources | Pulses (beans, lentils, chickpeas), marinated seafood, breaded meat products | Eggs, firm tofu, tempeh, poultry, lean meat, fish, seafood without marinade |
| Dairy products | Milk, cream cheese, cream, yogurt, quark | Lactose-free milk, hard cheese (parmesan, cheddar), butter, yoghurt made from fermented coconut milk |
| Sweeteners & snacks | Honey, high fructose corn syrup, sorbitol, xylitol, mannitol, prunes, chewing gum with polyols | Maple syrup, rice syrup, sugar in small amounts, dark chocolate, peanut butter without additives |
Many healthy foods are initially omitted: apples, pears, onions or wholemeal bread are among the FODMAP-rich varieties. But there are numerous alternatives. Spelt sourdough bread contains less fructans than conventional wheat bread, oatmeal provides fiber, and vegetables such as spinach, tomatoes, zucchini or red peppers provide you with vitamins. Even within a food group, the quantity plays a role: small portions of cauliflower (around 75 g) can be tolerated, while a large portion can cause discomfort. Preparation also influences the FODMAP content; long dough rising reduces the fructan content in bread, and fructose and polyols can be reduced by pouring off cooking water. It is therefore important not only to work through lists, but also to consider portion sizes and preparation methods [1][3].
The choice also depends on the type of FODMAP. Wheat contains long fructan chains, which are more difficult to digest than the shorter fructans in spelt. Pulses provide galactans, which can be partially reduced by soaking and sprouting. Ripe bananas contain more fructose than green bananas. These nuances illustrate why a personalized approach under professional guidance makes sense [1][3].
FODMAP-rich vs. FODMAP-poor foods in detail
A closer look at the FODMAP components helps to better understand the diet. Fructans and galactans belong to the oligosaccharides. They are mainly found in wheat, rye, barley, onions, garlic and legumes [1][2][5]. Lactose is a disaccharide and is found in milk, cream, yogurt and fresh cheese. Fructose is a monosaccharide; it is found in sweeteners such as honey and fructose syrup as well as in fruit such as apples, pears and watermelon. Polyols are sugar alcohols such as sorbitol, mannitol, xylitol and maltitol; they are found in plums, stone fruit, mushrooms and sugar-free sweets. These substances are well tolerated by some people, but in larger quantities they can draw water into the intestine and lead to gas formation. Low FODMAP alternatives, on the other hand, contain few fermentable carbohydrates: zucchinis, spinach, carrots, cucumbers, strawberries, ripe bananas in moderate quantities, lactose-free dairy products, rice, quinoa, oat flakes and hard-ripened cheese. If you combine these foods skilfully, you can create a varied diet despite the restrictions [1].
The exact tolerance depends on the quantity and the individual digestive system. Smaller portions of FODMAP-rich foods can often be enjoyed without discomfort, while larger quantities trigger symptoms. It is often the combination of several FODMAP-rich ingredients in one meal that leads to problems. In this case, we speak of the cumulative effect. An important rule is therefore: test foods individually and increase portions gradually. Document how you feel after a meal in your food diary [1][3].
FODMAP type 2 list - moderate foods and portion sizes
In addition to foods clearly categorized as "high" and "low", there are many intermediate levels. Some guides provide a FODMAP type 2 list or moderate FODMAP list. This contains foods with a medium FODMAP content, which can be tolerated in small quantities. These include cauliflower, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, sweet potatoes, avocado, celery, figs, ripe bananas, papaya, berry jam with fructose, honeydew melon and certain legumes such as red lentils [1][2]. The idea behind this is to increase variety in the diet without increasing the FODMAP load too much.
For example, half a cup of cauliflower (approx. 75 g) can be tolerated by many people, but a large portion can cause discomfort. Half an avocado or a small piece of ripe mango can be enjoyed, whereas a whole fruit contains too much fructose. Quantity also plays a role with nuts and seeds: cashews are considered high in FODMAPs, but a small handful can be tolerated by some people. The FODMAP type 2 list provides guidance during the reintroduction phase. Those affected test moderate foods individually, slowly increase the portion and document their experiences. In this way, the individual tolerance threshold can be determined and the diet can be varied [1][3].
Opportunities and risks of the FODMAP diet
The low FODMAP diet offers opportunities for many irritable bowel syndrome patients: meta-analyses show that around 70 to 75 percent of those affected experience significant relief from their symptoms [3]. Symptoms such as bloating, abdominal pain and diarrhea decrease and quality of life improves. The biggest advantage is that those affected can enjoy social activities again thanks to the diet. In addition, patients with endometriosis or Crohn's disease also report an improved quality of life when they temporarily reduce FODMAP-rich foods [3].
However, caution is advised. Many FODMAP-rich foods are rich in fiber, vitamins and prebiotic substances that promote healthy intestinal flora. Prolonged reduction can deplete the microbiota and lead to nutrient deficiencies [1]. Studies also indicate that over 90 percent of people with irritable bowel syndrome tend to follow a restrictive diet in order to avoid symptoms. The risk of eating disordered behavior, especially Avoidant Restrictive Food Intake Disorder (ARFID), is increasing [3]. For this reason, professional societies emphasize that the diet should only be followed for a limited time under professional guidance [1][3].
In addition, not everyone benefits from the FODMAP concept: around a quarter of patients show no improvement [3]. For these people, other therapeutic approaches may be useful, such as gut-related hypnosis, stress management, exercise, psychotherapy or medication. It is important not to see the FODMAP diet as a panacea. It is one tool among many and should be part of a comprehensive treatment concept.
Scientific findings and study situation
Numerous studies have been published since the introduction of the FODMAP concept. Randomized, controlled studies show that the low FODMAP diet reduces symptom severity and improves quality of life in many patients [3]. Systematic reviews come to similar conclusions. However, they also point to limitations: many studies are short-term, the number of participants is small and the definition of the control diet varies [2][3]. Long-term data is largely lacking. Therefore, most guidelines recommend the low FODMAP diet as an option, not as standard therapy. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has not yet approved any health claims regarding the low FODMAP diet, so no promises of a cure can be made. The long-term correlation between the diet and lasting relief from irritable bowel syndrome has not yet been conclusively clarified scientifically and further studies are required [1][2][3].
FODMAP and other diseases
The FODMAP diet is primarily known for irritable bowel syndrome patients, but it is also discussed for other conditions. People with fructose or lactose intolerance benefit from it, as they have to avoid certain types of sugar anyway. In chronic inflammatory bowel diseases such as Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, the study situation is inconsistent: some sufferers report an improvement in functional symptoms, others do not [2]. Patients with endometriosis who suffer from severe bloating can also benefit from a reduction in fermentable carbohydrates [3]. Athletes who have gastrointestinal complaints during intensive training runs also use the diet temporarily to avoid diarrhea and cramps [3]. It is important that such applications are examined individually and are not used without medical supervision.
Histamine intolerance is a special situation. In this case, the body lacks the enzyme diamine oxidase (DAO), which breaks down histamine. Those affected suffer from headaches, reddening of the skin, palpitations or digestive problems. The symptoms can be similar to irritable bowel syndrome, so a low-histamine diet can be useful. Some of our customers use DAO enzyme capsules as a supplement; if you are interested, you can find corresponding products such as the XTRA FUEL DAO capsules. The effect of such food supplements has not yet been confirmed by the EFSA.
FODMAP diet, microbiota and nutrients
FODMAP-rich foods often contain fiber and prebiotic substances such as inulin and oligofructose. These promote the growth of healthy bacteria in the large intestine. In the elimination phase, the supply of fermentable substrates is reduced, which decreases the diversity of the microbiota; some studies show a decline in bifidobacteria [2][3]. Specialist associations therefore recommend that the diet should not be followed for longer than necessary and that dietary diversity should be increased again after the reintroduction phase. In the long-term diet, prebiotics and fiber should be reintegrated in tolerable amounts [1][3].
The intake of micronutrients can also be affected by the diet. If you avoid dairy products, your calcium intake may drop; without whole grain products, you may lack B vitamins, iron and magnesium. For this reason, low FODMAP sources of these nutrients should be planned: Lactose-free milk and hard cheeses provide calcium; oatmeal, quinoa and amaranth provide iron, zinc and B vitamins; nuts, seeds and sesame seeds contain magnesium and valuable fatty acids. A varied selection of vegetables, fruit, proteins and healthy fats helps to cover nutrient requirements. Dietary supplements can be useful in individual cases, but should only be taken after consulting a healthcare professional. The efficacy and safety of many supplements has not yet been sufficiently researched and has not been confirmed by the EFSA [3][4].
In addition, the FODMAP diet leads to less gas formation and bloating in the short term because fermentation in the large intestine is reduced. In the long term, however, sufficient fermentable substrates should be available so that the intestinal flora can regenerate. The gradual reintroduction of individual FODMAP sources in moderate quantities is therefore important. The conscious handling of FODMAPs means finding a balance between symptom relief and promoting a healthy microbiota [1][3].
FODMAP diet in special life situations
Nutrition plays a central role for mother and child during pregnancy and breastfeeding. Pregnant women with irritable bowel syndrome should only follow a low FODMAP diet under medical and nutritional guidance, as nutrient deficiencies can affect the fetus. Folic acid, iron, calcium and omega-3 fatty acids must be supplied in sufficient quantities. During breastfeeding, the diet can be used for symptom control; however, infants only absorb very small amounts of indigestible carbohydrates through breast milk [1][4].
Irritable bowel syndrome is less common in children and adolescents, but they can also benefit from a low FODMAP diet. As children are growing, the phases of the diet must be planned particularly carefully. A complete elimination phase should only be undertaken with the approval of pediatricians and nutritionists. The moderate FODMAP list helps to keep the diet varied. It is also important to take psychosocial aspects into account: Children should not feel "different" because they avoid certain foods. Creative lunchbox ideas, cooking together and open communication promote acceptance [3][4].
Athletes sometimes experience digestive problems as a result of intensive training. Runners in particular report diarrhea or cramps before competitions. A temporary reduction in FODMAP-rich foods around training periods can alleviate these symptoms. However, active people need sufficient energy and carbohydrates. Well-tolerated sources such as rice, potatoes, lactose-free dairy products, moderate amounts of ripe bananas and oatmeal should be integrated into the diet. The diet should be adapted to the training plan; advice from sports nutritionists is recommended [3].
Tools and resources for everyday FODMAP life
The success of the low FODMAP diet depends heavily on its practical implementation. Various tools can support you. Universities such as Monash University offer a FODMAP app in which the FODMAP content of numerous foods is color-coded. By scanning or typing in a product, you can quickly find out whether the portion size is suitable. Apps, cookbooks and diet plans provide creative recipes from low-FODMAP bread to sophisticated desserts. A FODMAP diet plan helps you to plan your meals in advance, and a FODMAP diet list clearly summarizes tolerated and incompatible foods [1][2].
Shopping lists are also useful. Many sufferers create their own table with three columns: tolerated, incompatible and moderate. This makes it easy to see which foods are suitable for which stage of the diet. A food diary - digital or on paper - is another aid. Make a note of what you eat, how big the portions are, what time of day you eat the meal and how you feel afterwards. The notes make it easier to recognize patterns and serve as a basis for counseling [1][3].
Finally, the community is a valuable tool: self-help groups, online forums and social media allow you to exchange ideas with other sufferers. Here, people share experiences, recipes and tips. Nevertheless, information from the internet should be examined critically. Personal support from doctors and nutritionists is the foundation of the diet [2][3]. Aids can provide support, but are no substitute for individual advice.
FODMAP management on the go and in restaurants
Many sufferers dread going to restaurants or traveling because they do not know the ingredients of the dishes. Good preparation minimizes these stress factors. Look at the menu online before going to a restaurant and choose dishes with rice, potatoes, fish, meat, salad or grilled vegetables. Don't be afraid to explain in a friendly manner that you are avoiding certain ingredients - many kitchens are used to special requests and serve extra sauces or leave out onions. Pack a FODMAP-friendly snack such as gluten-free crackers or nuts if the selection is small. On the go, apps or tables can help if the list of ingredients is unclear. Many cafés now offer low-FODMAP dishes, especially in large cities and gluten-free bakeries.
Invitations to family or friends can also be made stress-free. Explain transparently which foods you avoid or bring your own dish. Sometimes it helps to eat a small meal before the party and only have a snack at the party. With a little creativity, you can serve low-FODMAP dishes for everyone - such as grilled meat or tofu with rice noodle salad and orange-fennel salad. When on vacation, we recommend staying in accommodation with a kitchen so that you can prepare your own meals. A first-aid kit with digestive enzymes or antispasmodics can give you peace of mind. It is important not to focus solely on restrictions, but to maintain your enjoyment of food. A relaxed attitude and openness to new dishes reduce stress and can even help to alleviate symptoms.
Psychological and social aspects
Irritable bowel syndrome is not only a physical but also a psychological burden. Stress and emotions affect the bowel and can exacerbate symptoms. Many sufferers experience a vicious circle: pain causes anxiety, which in turn affects bowel activity. Relaxation techniques such as progressive muscle relaxation, mindfulness exercises, yoga or cognitive behavioral therapy help to break this cycle [4]. Physical activity such as walking, moderate strength training or swimming also supports digestion and reduces stress. Social support from relatives, friends or self-help groups reduces the feeling of isolation. Dealing openly with the illness makes everyday life easier: plan toilet breaks, bring your own food, inform those around you about your needs and seek professional psychological support if necessary.
Example of experience: Tobias, 50, initially felt very uncomfortable talking about his digestive problems. He avoided going to restaurants and withdrew socially. A psychotherapist helped him to overcome his fear and develop new strategies. Today, Tobias informs his friends about his diet before joint activities, chooses food carefully and uses relaxation exercises to minimize stress-related flare-ups. He emphasizes how important it is to seek support and listen to your own body.
Tips for everyday life - balance instead of sacrifice
Switching to a low FODMAP diet is a challenge, but with the right approach it can be achieved. Here are some practical tips:
- Keep a food diary: Write down what you eat, how large the portions are and what symptoms you experience. This will help you to recognize correlations and take targeted action during the reintroduction phase.
- Test step by step: After the elimination phase, introduce only one FODMAP-rich food each week. Start with small portions and increase them slowly to determine your individual tolerance.
- Pay attention to nutrient diversity: Combine low FODMAP whole grain products such as oatmeal, proteins from eggs, meat or tofu, healthy fats from nuts and avocado as well as fresh fruit and vegetables. This will prevent deficiency symptoms.
- Reduce stress: Use relaxation exercises, yoga, meditation or breathing techniques. Regular sleep and exercise support the gut-brain axis.
- Seek professional support: Get guidance from doctors and nutritionists. They will help you avoid mistakes and adapt the diet to your needs.
- Maintain a long-term perspective: The FODMAP diet is not a permanent condition. The aim is to find a personal feel-good diet. Be flexible and consciously allow yourself moments of indulgence.
Conclusion: Balance between enjoyment and alleviating discomfort
A low FODMAP diet can be an effective way for many people with irritable bowel syndrome to alleviate symptoms and improve their quality of life. The diet is based on temporarily reducing certain fermentable carbohydrates and gradually reintroducing them. The S3 guideline recommends the low FODMAP diet, particularly for pain, bloating and diarrhoea, but emphasizes the need for professional nutritional advice [1][3]. In the long term, the diet should be expanded again to avoid nutrient deficiencies and depletion of the intestinal flora. The diet is not a panacea: around a quarter of those affected do not benefit from it. Other treatment options such as stress management, psychotherapy, exercise or medication can be useful as a supplement or alternative.
The low-FODMAP diet is not recommended for healthy people and people without a diagnosis, as many FODMAP-rich foods contain substances that are beneficial to health [2]. The correlation between the intake of individual ingredients and specific health functions has not yet been confirmed by the European Food Safety Authority; therefore, no promises of a cure can be made. Anyone wishing to try the diet should only do so in consultation with a healthcare professional. However, with the right knowledge, professional support and a portion of serenity, the low FODMAP diet can help you to achieve a better gut feeling - without having to sacrifice enjoyment.
List of sources:
- [1] AOK. (2023). FODMAP diet: Fewer FODMAP foods for irritable bowel syndrome. AOK Health Magazine. https://www.aok.de/pk/magazin/ernaehrung/ernaehrungsformen/fodmap-diaet-weniger-fodmap-lebensmittel-bei-reizdarm/
- [2] Wolff, C. (2024). FODMAP diet for irritable bowel syndrome. Onmeda. https://www.onmeda.de/krankheiten/reizdarm/fodmap-diaet-id202627/
- [3] Dr. Schär Institute. (2025). The FODMAP concept: Many opportunities - but also risks. https://www.drschaer.com/de/institute/n/fodmap-viele-chancen-aber-auch-risiken
- [4] Medical Center for Quality in Medicine (ÄZQ). (2023). Irritable bowel syndrome - When intestinal problems affect everyday life. German Medical Association / National Association of Statutory Health Insurance Physicians. https://www.bundesaerztekammer.de/fileadmin/user_upload/BAEK/Patienten/Patienteninformationen/reizdarmsyndrom-kip.pdf
- [5] Wikipedia. (2024). FODMAP. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/FODMAP